Vegetarian In Boston

tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-156446862012-02-16T14:06:07.329-05:00Vegetarian In BostonVegetarian In Boston Maynard S. Clark's Veggie and Boston Blog talks about vegetarian topics AND Boston-related topics, often intersecting them interestingly. Maynard S. Clark is a long-time and well-known vegan in Greater Boston, who often quips in his 'elevator pitch': "I've been vegan now for over half my natural life, longer than most human earthlings have been alive."vegetarianhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16520095125119187617noreply@blogger.comBlogger6031100tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-15644686.post-48365991808035292032011-09-25T12:36:00.000-04:002011-09-25T12:38:09.669-04:00n-3 - Omega 3s <div class="dablink" style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: italic; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; padding-left: 2em;">For an explanation of n and numerical nomenclature (such as n−3 or 18:3), see <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatty_acid#Nomenclature" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Fatty acid">Fatty acid#Nomenclature</a>.</div><table class="metadata plainlinks ambox ambox-style" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(244, 196, 48); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 10px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; color: black; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; margin-top: 0px;"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 2px; text-align: center;"><div style="width: 52px;"><img alt="" height="40" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="40" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; padding-bottom: 0.25em; padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; padding-top: 0.25em; width: 1037px;">This article may be too <a class="extiw" href="http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/technical#Adjective" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; color: #3366bb; padding-bottom: 0px !important; padding-left: 0px !important; padding-right: 0px !important; padding-top: 0px !important; text-decoration: none;" title="wikt:technical">technical</a> for most readers to understand. Please help <a class="external text" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Omega-3_fatty_acid&action=edit" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: url(http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/monobook/external.png); background-origin: initial; background-position: 0% 0%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #3366bb; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 13px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;">improve</a> this article to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Make_technical_articles_understandable" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; color: #002bb8; padding-bottom: 0px !important; padding-left: 0px !important; padding-right: 0px !important; padding-top: 0px !important; text-decoration: none;" title="Wikipedia:Make technical articles understandable">make it understandable to non-experts</a>, without removing the technical details. The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Omega-3_fatty_acid" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; color: #002bb8; padding-bottom: 0px !important; padding-left: 0px !important; padding-right: 0px !important; padding-top: 0px !important; text-decoration: none;" title="Talk:Omega-3 fatty acid">talk page</a> may contain suggestions.  (November 2010)</td></tr></tbody></table><table class="infobox" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; clear: right; color: black; float: right; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #eeeeee; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; text-align: center; vertical-align: top;">Types of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fat" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Fat">fats</a> in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Food">food</a></th></tr><tr><td style="vertical-align: top;"><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: url(http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/monobook/bullet.gif); list-style-type: square; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unsaturated_fat" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Unsaturated fat">Unsaturated fat</a><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: url(http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/monobook/bullet.gif); list-style-type: square; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monounsaturated_fat" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Monounsaturated fat">Monounsaturated fat</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyunsaturated_fat" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Polyunsaturated fat">Polyunsaturated fat</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trans_fat" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Trans fat">Trans fat</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cis_fat" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Cis fat">Cis fat</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Omega fatty acids:<ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: url(http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/monobook/bullet.gif); margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">ω−3</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-6_fatty_acid" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Omega-6 fatty acid">ω−6</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-9_fatty_acid" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Omega-9 fatty acid">ω−9</a></li></ul></li></ul></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturated_fat" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Saturated fat">Saturated fat</a><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: url(http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/monobook/bullet.gif); list-style-type: square; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interesterified_fat" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Interesterified fat">Interesterified fat</a></li></ul></li></ul></td></tr><tr><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #eeeeee; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; text-align: center; vertical-align: top;">See also</th></tr><tr><td style="vertical-align: top;"><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: url(http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/monobook/bullet.gif); list-style-type: square; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatty_acid" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Fatty acid">Fatty acid</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essential_fatty_acid" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Essential fatty acid">Essential fatty acid</a></li></ul></td></tr></tbody></table><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">N−3 fatty acids (popularly referred to as ω−3 fatty acids or omega-3 fatty acids) are essential <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unsaturated_fat" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Unsaturated fat">unsaturated</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatty_acid" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Fatty acid">fatty acids</a> with a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_bond#Bond_order" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Double bond">double bond</a> (C=C) starting after the third carbon atom from the end of the carbon chain.</div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essential_fatty_acid" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Essential fatty acid">Essential fatty acids</a> are <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecules" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Molecules">molecules</a> that cannot be synthesized by the human body but are vital for normal <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolism" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Metabolism">metabolism</a>. One of the two families of these essential fatty acids is the omega-3 fatty acids.</div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The carbon chain has two ends—the acid (COOH) end and the methyl (CH3) end. The location of the first double bond is counted from the methyl end, which is also known as the omega (ω) end or the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essential_fatty_acid#Nomenclature_and_terminology" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Essential fatty acid">n</a> end.</div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Nutritionally important n−3 fatty acids include <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha-Linolenic_acid" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Alpha-Linolenic acid">α-linolenic acid</a> (ALA), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eicosapentaenoic_acid" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Eicosapentaenoic acid">eicosapentaenoic acid</a> (EPA), and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Docosahexaenoic_acid" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Docosahexaenoic acid">docosahexaenoic acid</a> (DHA), all of which are <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyunsaturated" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Polyunsaturated">polyunsaturated</a>.</div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Common sources of n–3 fatty acids include <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fish_oil" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Fish oil">fish oils</a> and some <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_oil" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Plant oil">plant oils</a> such as <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flaxseed" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Flaxseed">flaxseed</a> oil and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Algal">algal</a> oil.</div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Mammals cannot synthesize n−3 fatty acids, but have a limited ability to form the "long-chain" n−3 fatty acids EPA (20-carbon atoms) and DHA (22-carbon atoms) from the "short-chain" eighteen-carbon n−3 fatty acid ALA.</div><table class="toc tochidden" id="toc" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; color: black; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 19px; margin-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 5px; padding-left: 5px; padding-right: 5px; padding-top: 5px;"><tbody><tr><td><div id="toctitle" style="text-align: center;"><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; border-width: initial; display: inline; font-size: 12px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">Contents</h2> [<a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#" id="togglelink" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;">show</a>]</div></td></tr></tbody></table><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 19px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">Chemistry</h2><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: white; clear: right; float: right; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 1.3em; margin-left: 1.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; min-width: 100px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: center; width: 362px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ALAnumbering.svg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="54" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/ALAnumbering.svg/360px-ALAnumbering.svg.png" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="360" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-image: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; float: right;"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ALAnumbering.svg" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-image: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; color: #002bb8; display: block; text-decoration: none;" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: white; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-color: initial; border-image: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-width: initial; display: block; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div>Chemical structure of alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), an essential n−3 fatty acid, (18:3Δ9c,12c,15c, which means a chain of 18 carbons with 3 double bonds on carbons numbered 9, 12, and 15). Although chemists count from the carbonyl carbon (blue numbering), physiologists count from the n (ω) carbon (red numbering). Note that, from the n end (diagram right), the first double bond appears as the third carbon-carbon bond (line segment), hence the name "n−3". This is explained by the fact that the nend is almost never changed during physiologic transformations in the human body, as it is more energy-stable, and other carbohydrates compounds can be synthesized from the other carbonyl end, for example in glycerides, or from double bonds in the middle of the chain.</div></div></div><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: white; clear: right; float: right; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 1.3em; margin-left: 1.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; min-width: 100px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: center; width: 362px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:EPAnumbering.png" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="44" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/EPAnumbering.png/360px-EPAnumbering.png" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="360" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-image: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; float: right;"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:EPAnumbering.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-image: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; color: #002bb8; display: block; text-decoration: none;" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: white; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-color: initial; border-image: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-width: initial; display: block; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div>Chemical structure of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA).</div></div></div><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: white; clear: right; float: right; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 1.3em; margin-left: 1.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; min-width: 100px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: center; width: 362px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DHAnumbering.png" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="42" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/DHAnumbering.png/360px-DHAnumbering.png" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="360" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-image: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; float: right;"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DHAnumbering.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-image: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; color: #002bb8; display: block; text-decoration: none;" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: white; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-color: initial; border-image: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-width: initial; display: block; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div>Chemical structure of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA).</div></div></div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">N−3 fatty acids that are important in human physiology are α-linolenic acid (18:3, n−3; ALA), eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5, n−3; EPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (22:6, n−3; DHA). These three <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyunsaturated" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Polyunsaturated">polyunsaturates</a> have either 3, 5, or 6 double bonds in a carbon chain of 18, 20, or 22 carbon atoms, respectively. As with most naturally-produced fatty acids, all double bonds are in the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cis-trans_isomerism" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Cis-trans isomerism">cis</a>-configuration; in other words, the two hydrogen atoms are on the same side of the double bond.</div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Like free oxygen radicals, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iodine" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Iodine">iodine</a> can add to double bonds of docosahexaenoic acid and arachidonic acid forming iodolipids.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-Venturi-0" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[1]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[2]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-2" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[3]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-3" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[4]</a></div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Omega-3_fatty_acid&action=edit&section=2" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: List of n−3 fatty acids">edit</a>]List of n−3 fatty acids</h3><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">This table lists several different names for the most common n−3 fatty acids found in nature.</div><table class="wikitable" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-collapse: collapse; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; color: black; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 1em; margin-top: 1em;"><tbody><tr><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;">Common name</th><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;">Lipid name</th><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;">Chemical name</th></tr><tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hexadecatrienoic_acid&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #ba0000; text-decoration: none;" title="Hexadecatrienoic acid (page does not exist)">Hexadecatrienoic acid</a> (HTA)</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">16:3 (n−3)</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">all-cis-7,10,13-hexadecatrienoic acid</td></tr><tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha-linolenic_acid" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Alpha-linolenic acid">α-Linolenic acid</a> (ALA)</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">18:3 (n−3)</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">all-cis-9,12,15-octadecatrienoic acid</td></tr><tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stearidonic_acid" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Stearidonic acid">Stearidonic acid</a> (SDA)</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">18:4 (n−3)</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">all-cis-6,9,12,15-octadecatetraenoic acid</td></tr><tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eicosatrienoic_acid&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #ba0000; text-decoration: none;" title="Eicosatrienoic acid (page does not exist)">Eicosatrienoic acid</a> (ETE)</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">20:3 (n−3)</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">all-cis-11,14,17-eicosatrienoic acid</td></tr><tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eicosatetraenoic_acid" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Eicosatetraenoic acid">Eicosatetraenoic acid</a> (ETA)</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">20:4 (n−3)</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">all-cis-8,11,14,17-eicosatetraenoic acid</td></tr><tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eicosapentaenoic_acid" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Eicosapentaenoic acid">Eicosapentaenoic acid</a> (EPA)</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">20:5 (n−3)</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">all-cis-5,8,11,14,17-eicosapentaenoic acid</td></tr><tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Heneicosapentaenoic_acid&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #ba0000; text-decoration: none;" title="Heneicosapentaenoic acid (page does not exist)">Heneicosapentaenoic acid</a> (HPA)</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">21:5 (n−3)</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">all-cis-6,9,12,15,18-heneicosapentaenoic acid</td></tr><tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Docosapentaenoic_acid" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Docosapentaenoic acid">Docosapentaenoic acid</a> (DPA), Clupanodonic acid</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">22:5 (n−3)</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">all-cis-7,10,13,16,19-docosapentaenoic acid</td></tr><tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Docosahexaenoic_acid" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Docosahexaenoic acid">Docosahexaenoic acid</a> (DHA)</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">22:6 (n−3)</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">all-cis-4,7,10,13,16,19-docosahexaenoic acid</td></tr><tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tetracosapentaenoic_acid&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #ba0000; text-decoration: none;" title="Tetracosapentaenoic acid (page does not exist)">Tetracosapentaenoic acid</a></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">24:5 (n−3)</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">all-cis-9,12,15,18,21-tetracosapentaenoic acid</td></tr><tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tetracosahexaenoic_acid&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #ba0000; text-decoration: none;" title="Tetracosahexaenoic acid (page does not exist)">Tetracosahexaenoic acid</a> (Nisinic acid)</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">24:6 (n−3)</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">all-cis-6,9,12,15,18,21-tetracosahexaenoic acid</td></tr></tbody></table><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 19px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">Significance to human nutrition and health</h2><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">History</h3><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Although omega-3 fatty acids have been known as essential to normal growth and health since the 1930s, awareness of their health benefits has dramatically increased since the 1990s.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-4" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[5]</a> New versions of ethyl esterized omega-3 fatty acids, such as <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-EPA" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="E-EPA">E-EPA</a> and combinations of E-EPA and E-DHA, have drawn attention as highly purified and more effective products than the traditional ones. In the United States and European Union, these novel versions are often sold as prescription medications, such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lovaza" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Lovaza">Lovaza</a>. Elsewhere they are available as dietary supplements.</div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The health benefits of the long-chain omega-3 fatty acids — DHA and EPA omega-3 — are the best-known. These benefits were discovered in the 1970s by researchers studying the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inuit" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Inuit">Greenland Inuit Tribe</a>. The Greenland Inuit people consumed large amounts of fat from meat, but displayed virtually no cardiovascular disease. The high level of omega-3 fatty acids consumed by the Inuit reduced <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triglycerides" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Triglycerides">triglycerides</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heart_rate" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Heart rate">heart rate</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_pressure" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Blood pressure">blood pressure</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atherosclerosis" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Atherosclerosis">atherosclerosis</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-5" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[6]</a></div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">On September 8, 2004, the U.S. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a> gave "qualified health claim" status to EPA and DHA n−3 fatty acids, stating that "supportive but not conclusive research shows that consumption of EPA and DHA [n−3] fatty acids may reduce the risk of <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronary_heart_disease" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Coronary heart disease">coronary heart disease</a>."<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-fda2004-6" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[7]</a> This updated and modified their health risk advice letter of 2001 (see below). As of this writing, regulatory agencies[<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words">who?</a>] do not accept that there is sufficient evidence for any of the suggested benefits of DHA and EPA other than for cardiovascular health, and further claims should be treated with caution.</div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The Canadian Government has recognized the importance of DHA omega-3 and permits the following biological role claim for DHA: "DHA, an omega-3 fatty acid, supports the normal development of the brain, eyes and nerves."<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-7" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[8]</a></div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">Biological significance</h3><dl style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em;">The biological effects of the n−3 are largely mediated by their interactions with the n−6 fatty acids; see <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essential_fatty_acid_interactions" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Essential fatty acid interactions">Essential fatty acid interactions</a> for detail.</dd></dl><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">A 1992 article by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochemistry" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Biochemistry">biochemist</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_E.M._Lands" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="William E.M. Lands">William E.M. Lands</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-Lands1992-8" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[9]</a> provides an overview of the research into n−3 fatty acids, and is the basis of this section.</div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The 'essential' fatty acids were given their name when researchers found that they are essential to normal growth in young children and animals. (Note that the modern definition of '<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essential_fatty_acid" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Essential fatty acid">essential</a>' is more strict.) A small amount of n−3 in the diet (~1% of total calories) enabled normal growth, and increasing the amount had little to no additional effect on growth.</div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Likewise, researchers found that <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-6_fatty_acid" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Omega-6 fatty acid">n−6 fatty acids</a> (such as <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma-linolenic_acid" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Gamma-linolenic acid">γ-linolenic acid</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arachidonic_acid" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Arachidonic acid">arachidonic acid</a>) play a similar role in normal growth. However, they also found that n−6 was "better" at supporting <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dermis" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Dermis">dermal</a> integrity, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Renal">renal</a> function, and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parturition" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Parturition">parturition</a>. These preliminary findings led researchers to concentrate their studies on n−6, and it is only in recent decades that n−3 has become of interest.</div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">In 1964, it was discovered that enzymes found in sheep tissues convert n−6 arachidonic acid into the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflammation" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Inflammation">inflammatory</a> agent called <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prostaglandin" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Prostaglandin">prostaglandin</a> E2,<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-9" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[10]</a> which both causes the sensation of pain and expedites healing and immune response in traumatized and infected tissues.[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] By 1979, more of what are now known as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eicosanoid" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Eicosanoid">eicosanoids</a> were discovered: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thromboxane" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Thromboxane">thromboxanes</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prostacyclin" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Prostacyclin">prostacyclins</a>, and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leukotriene" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Leukotriene">leukotrienes</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-Lands1992-8" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[9]</a> The eicosanoids, which have important biological functions, typically have a short active lifetime in the body, starting with synthesis from fatty acids and ending with metabolism by enzymes. However, if the rate of synthesis exceeds the rate of metabolism, the excess eicosanoids may have deleterious effects.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-Lands1992-8" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[9]</a>Researchers found that certain n−3 fatty acids are also converted into eicosanoids, but at a much slower rate. Eicosanoids made from n−3 fatty acids are often referred to as anti-inflammatory, but in fact they are just less inflammatory than those made from n−6 fats. If both n−3 and n−6 fatty acids are present, they will "compete" to be transformed,<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-Lands1992-8" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[9]</a> so the ratio of long-chain n−3:n−6 fatty acids directly affects the type of eicosanoids that are produced[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>].</div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">This competition was recognized as important when it was found that <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thromboxane" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Thromboxane">thromboxane</a> is a factor in the clumping of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platelet" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Platelet">platelets</a>, which can both cause death by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrombosis" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Thrombosis">thrombosis</a> and cause death by bleeding. Likewise, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leukotriene" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Leukotriene">leukotrienes</a> were found to be important in immune/inflammatory-system response, and therefore relevant to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthritis" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Arthritis">arthritis</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lupus_erythematosus" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Lupus erythematosus">lupus</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asthma" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Asthma">asthma</a>, and recovery from infections. These discoveries led to greater interest in finding ways to control the synthesis of n−6 eicosanoids. The simplest way would be by consuming more n−3 and fewer n−6 fatty acids.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-Lands1992-8" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[9]</a></div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">When administered as the ethyl ester, the omega-3 fatty acid EPA appears to form potent anti-inflammatory molecules, called resolvins and omega-3-oxylipins,<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-10" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[11]</a> which may partly explain the positive effects of fish oil.[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The n-3 fatty acids DHA and EPA may act as direct ligands to a cell surface <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G-protein" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="G-protein">G-protein</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Receptor" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Receptor">receptor</a>, affecting anti-inflammatory and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insulin" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Insulin">insulin</a> sensitization in mice.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-11" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[12]</a></div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">Interconversion</h3><h4 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">Conversion efficiency of ALA to EPA and DHA</h4><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The short-chain n−3 fatty acids are converted to long-chain forms (EPA, DHA) with an efficiency below 5%<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-12" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[13]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-13" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[14]</a> in men, and at a greater percentage in women which may be due to the importance for meeting the demands of the fetus and neonate for DHA.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-14" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[15]</a></div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">These conversions occur competitively with n−6 fatty acids, which are essential closely related chemical analogues that are derived from linoleic acid. Both the n−3 α-linolenic acid and n−6 linoleic acid must be obtained from food. Synthesis of the longer n−3 fatty acids from linolenic acid within the body is competitively slowed by the n−6 analogues. Thus, accumulation of long-chain n−3 fatty acids in tissues is more effective when they are obtained directly from food or when competing amounts of n−6 analogs do not greatly exceed the amounts of n−3.[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The conversion of ALA to EPA and further to DHA in humans has been reported to be limited, but varies with individuals.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-ceol-15" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[16]</a> Women have higher ALA conversion efficiency than men, it is presumed due to the lower rate of use of dietary ALA for beta-oxidation. This suggests that biological engineering of ALA conversion efficiency is possible. Goyens et al. argue that it the absolute amount of ALA, rather than the ratio of n−3 and n−6 fatty acids, controls the conversion efficiency.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-cala-16" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[17]</a></div><h4 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">The n−6 to n−3 ratio</h4><div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle" style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: italic; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; padding-left: 2em;">Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essential_fatty_acid_interactions" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Essential fatty acid interactions">Essential fatty acid interactions</a></div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Some clinical studies<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-Lands1992-8" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[9]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-Okuyama2001-17" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[18]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-pmid_18196988-18" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[19]</a> indicate that the ingested ratio of n−6 to n−3 (especially linoleic vs alpha-linolenic) fatty acids is important to maintaining cardiovascular health. However, two studies published in 2005 and 2007 found that while n−3 polyunsaturated fatty acids are extremely beneficial in preventing heart disease in humans, the levels of n−6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (and therefore the ratios) were insignificant.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-19" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[20]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-20" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[21]</a></div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Both n−3 and n−6 fatty acids are essential; i.e., humans must consume them in the diets. N−3 and n−6 eighteen-carbon polyunsaturated fatty acids compete for the same metabolic enzymes, thus the n−6:n−3 ratio will significantly influence the ratio of the ensuing eicosanoids (hormones), (e.g., <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prostaglandins" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Prostaglandins">prostaglandins</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leukotrienes" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Leukotrienes">leukotrienes</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thromboxanes" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Thromboxanes">thromboxanes</a>, etc.), and will alter the body's metabolic function.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-21" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[22]</a> In general, grass-fed animals accumulate more n−3 than do grain-fed animals, which accumulate relatively more n−6.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-Duckett_Animal_Finishing-22" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[23]</a> <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolites" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Metabolites">Metabolites</a> of n−6 are more inflammatory (esp. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arachidonic_acid" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Arachidonic acid">arachidonic acid</a>) than those of n−3. This necessitates that n−3 and n−6 be consumed in a balanced proportion; healthy ratios of n−6:n−3 range from 1:1 to 1:4 (an individual needs more n−3 than n−6.)<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-tribole2007-23" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[24]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-lands2005-24" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[25]</a> Studies suggest the evolutionary human diet, rich in game animals, seafood, and other sources of n−3, may have provided such a ratio.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-simopoulos2003-25" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[26]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-simopoulos2000-26" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[27]</a></div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Typical Western diets provide ratios of between 10:1 and 30:1 (i.e., dramatically higher levels of n−6 than n-3).<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-27" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[28]</a> The ratios of n−6 to n−3 fatty acids in some common vegetable oils are: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canola" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Canola">canola</a> 2:1, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soybean" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Soybean">soybean</a> 7:1, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olive" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Olive">olive</a> 3–13:1, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunflower" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Sunflower">sunflower</a> (non−3), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flax" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Flax">flax</a> 1:3,<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-28" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[29]</a> <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cottonseed" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Cottonseed">cottonseed</a> (almost no n−3), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peanut" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Peanut">peanut</a> (no n−3), <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grapeseed_oil" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Grapeseed oil">grapeseed oil</a> (almost no n−3) and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corn_oil" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Corn oil">corn oil</a> 46:1 ratio of n−6 to n−3.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-NIHefaeducationpage-29" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[30]</a></div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">As a <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Harvard">Harvard</a> expert explains, n-6 fatty acids also reduce inflammation and protect against heart disease, so the n-3 to n-6 ratio "is of no value in evaluating diet quality or predicting disease".<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-harvard-30" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[31]</a></div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">Potential health benefits</h3><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The 18 carbon α-linolenic acid (ALA) has not been shown to have the same cardiovascular benefits that DHA or EPA may have.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-vonSchacky2003-31" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[32]</a> Currently, there are many products on the market that claim to contain health-promoting "omega 3", but contain only ALA, not EPA or DHA. These products contain mainly plant oils and must be converted by the body to create DHA. DHA and EPA are made by marine <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microalgae" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Microalgae">microalgae</a>. These are then consumed by fish and accumulate to high levels in their internal organs. The United States <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_Protection_Agency" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Environmental Protection Agency">Environmental Protection Agency</a> issues fish consumption advisories to empower Americans to avoid toxic mercury levels in certain fish and shellfish while still reaping the possible health benefits of consuming fish and shellfish.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-32" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[33]</a></div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Some evidence suggests that people with certain circulatory problems, such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varicose_veins" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Varicose veins">varicose veins</a>, may benefit from the consumption of EPA and DHA, which may stimulate <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circulatory_system" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Circulatory system">blood circulation</a>, increase the breakdown of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibrin" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Fibrin">fibrin</a>, a compound involved in clot and scar formation, and, in addition, may reduce <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_pressure" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Blood pressure">blood pressure</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-Morris1993-33" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[34]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-Mori1993-34" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[35]</a> Evidently, n−3 fatty acids reduce <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Blood">blood</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triglyceride" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Triglyceride">triglyceride</a> levels,<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-Harris1997-35" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[36]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-Sanders1997-36" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[37]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-Roche1996-37" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[38]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-Davidson2007-38" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[39]</a> and regular intake may reduce the risk of secondary and primary <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myocardial_infarction" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Myocardial infarction">heart attack</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-Bucher2002-39" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[40]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-Burr1994-40" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[41]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-Willett1993-41" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[42]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-Stone1996-42" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[43]</a> A systematic review of studies prior to 2005 showed that ALA does not confer the cardiovascular health benefits of EPA and DHA.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-fishflax-43" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[44]</a></div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Some potential benefits have been reported in conditions such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rheumatoid_arthritis" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Rheumatoid arthritis">rheumatoid arthritis</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-Fortin1995-44" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[45]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-Kremer1985-45" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[46]</a> and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiac_arrhythmias" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Cardiac arrhythmias">cardiac arrhythmias</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-Christensen1995-46" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[47]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-Christensen1996-47" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[48]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-Pignier2007-48" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[49]</a></div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">There is preliminary evidence that EPA supplementation, either with DPA or medication, is helpful in cases of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Major depressive disorder">depression</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-Su2003-49" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[50]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-50" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[51]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-51" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[52]</a> There is also limited evidence that supplementation with n-3 fatty acids, alone or in combination with n-6 fatty acids, may reduce anxiety,<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-52" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[53]</a> however, the only live study to suggest an anxiety reducing effect involved <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91-Linolenic_acid" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Α-Linolenic acid">α-Linolenic acid</a> (as opposed to EPA or DPA).<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-53" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[54]</a> The New York Times,<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-54" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[55]</a> however, reports that at least one study<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-55" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[56]</a> has not found a connection between depression in heart patients taking Sertraline and daily supplements containing two grams total of EPA and DHA during a ten-week period.</div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Some research suggests that <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fish_oil" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Fish oil">fish oil</a> intake may reduce the risk of ischemic and thrombotic <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Stroke">stroke</a>,<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-keli1994-56" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[57]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-gillum1996-57" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[58]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-iso2001-58" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[59]</a> although large amounts may actually increase the risk of hemorrhagic stroke (see below): Lower amounts are not related to this risk;<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-iso2001-58" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[59]</a> 3 grams of total EPA/DHA daily are generally recognized as safe (<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GRAS" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="GRAS">GRAS</a>) with no increased risk of bleeding involved<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-59" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[60]</a> and many studies used substantially higher doses without major side effects (for example: 4.4 grams EPA/2.2 grams DHA in 2003 study).<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-Su2003-49" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[50]</a></div><h4 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">Cancer</h4><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Several studies report possible anti-<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cancer" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Cancer">cancer</a> effects of n−3 fatty acids (in particular, breast, colon, and prostate cancer).<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-augustsson2003-60" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[61]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-dedeckere1999-61" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[62]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-caygill1995-62" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[63]</a> Omega-3 fatty acids reduced prostate tumor growth, slowed histopathological progression, and increased survival in mice.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-63" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[64]</a> Among n-3 fatty acids [omega-3], neither long-chain nor short-chain forms were consistently associated with breast cancer risk. High levels of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Docosahexaenoic_acid" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Docosahexaenoic acid">docosahexaenoic acid</a>, however, the most abundant n-3 PUFA in erythrocyte membranes, were associated with a reduced risk of breast cancer.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-64" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[65]</a> Conversely, a 2011 study, the largest ever done involving 3,400 men, examined the association of dietary fats and prostate cancer risk, found that men with the highest blood percentages of docosahexaenoic acid, or DHA, an inflammation-lowering omega-3 fatty acid commonly found in fatty fish, have two-and-a-half-times the risk of developing aggressive, high-grade prostate cancer compared to men with the lowest DHA levels.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-65" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[66]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-eurekalert.org-66" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[67]</a></div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">A 2006 report in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_the_American_Medical_Association" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Journal of the American Medical Association">Journal of the American Medical Association</a>, in their review of literature covering <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cohort_study" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Cohort study">cohorts</a> from many countries with a wide variety of demographics, concluded that there was no link between n−3 fatty acids and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cancer" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Cancer">cancer</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-JAMA2006-67" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[68]</a>This is similar to the findings of a review by the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Medical_Journal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="British Medical Journal">British Medical Journal</a> of studies up to February 2002 that failed to find clear effects of long and shorter chain n−3 fats on total <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mortality_rate" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Mortality rate">mortality</a>, combined cardiovascular events and cancer.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-BMJ2006-68" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[69]</a></div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">A 2007 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systematic_review" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Systematic review">systematic review</a> of n-3 fatty acids and cachexia found evidence that oral n-3 fatty acid supplements benefit cancer patients, improving appetite, weight, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_of_life" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Quality of life">quality of life</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-69" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[70]</a> A 2009 trial found that a supplement of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eicosapentaenoic_acid" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Eicosapentaenoic acid">eicosapentaenoic acid</a> helped cancer patients retain muscle mass.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-70" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[71]</a></div><h4 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">Cardiovascular disease</h4><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">In 1999, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GISSI" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="GISSI">GISSI</a>-Prevenzione Investigators reported in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lancet" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="The Lancet">The Lancet</a> the results of major clinical study in 11,324 patients with a recent myocardial infarction. Treatment 1 gram per day of n−3 fatty acids reduced the occurrence of death, cardiovascular death, and sudden cardiac death by 20%, 30%, and 45%, respectively.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-71" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[72]</a> These beneficial effects were seen from three months onwards.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-72" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[73]</a></div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">In April 2006, a team led by <a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lee_Hooper&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #ba0000; text-decoration: none;" title="Lee Hooper (page does not exist)">Lee Hooper</a> at the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_East_Anglia" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="University of East Anglia">University of East Anglia</a> in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwich" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Norwich">Norwich</a>, UK, published a review of almost 100 separate studies of n−3 fatty acids found in abundance in oily fish. It concluded that they do not have a significant protective effect against cardiovascular disease.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-trivedi2006-73" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[74]</a> This meta-analysis was controversial and stands in stark contrast with two different reviews also performed in 2006 by the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Journal_of_Clinical_Nutrition" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="American Journal of Clinical Nutrition">American Journal of Clinical Nutrition</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-wang2006-74" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[75]</a> and a second <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_the_American_Medical_Association" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Journal of the American Medical Association">JAMA</a>review;<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-mozaffarian2006-75" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[76]</a> both indicated decreases in total mortality and cardiovascular incidents (i.e., <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myocardial_infarction" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Myocardial infarction">myocardial infarctions</a>) associated with the regular consumption of fish and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fish_oil" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Fish oil">fish oil</a> supplements.</div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">In the March 2007 edition of the journal <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atherosclerosis" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Atherosclerosis">Atherosclerosis</a>, 81 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Japan">Japanese</a> men with unhealthy <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_sugar" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Blood sugar">blood sugar</a> levels were randomly assigned to receive 1800 mg daily of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eicosapentaenoic_acid" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Eicosapentaenoic acid">eicosapentaenoic acid</a> (EPA), with the other half being a control group. The thickness of the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carotid_arteries" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Carotid arteries">carotid arteries</a> and certain measures of blood flow were measured before and after supplementation. This went on for approximately two years. A total of 60 patients (30 in the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-EPA" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="E-EPA">E-EPA</a> group and 30 in the control group) completed the study. Those given the EPA had a statistically significant decrease in the thickness of the carotid arteries, along with improvement in blood flow. The authors indicated that this was the first demonstration that administration of purified EPA improved the thickness of <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carotid_arteries" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Carotid arteries">carotid arteries</a> and improved blood flow in patients with unhealthy blood sugar levels.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-mita2007-76" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[77]</a></div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">In a study published in the American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy March 2007, patients with high <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triglyceride" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Triglyceride">triglycerides</a> and poor coronary artery health were given 4 grams a day of a combination of EPA and DHA along with some monounsaturated fatty acids. Those patients with very unhealthy <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triglyceride" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Triglyceride">triglyceride</a> levels (above 500 mg/dl) reduced their triglycerides on average 45% and their VLDL <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cholesterol" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Cholesterol">cholesterol</a> by more than 50%. VLDL is a "bad" type of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cholesterol" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Cholesterol">cholesterol</a>, and elevated<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triglyceride" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Triglyceride">triglycerides</a> can also be deleterious for cardiovascular health.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-mckenney2007-77" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[78]</a></div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">A study on the benefits of EPA published in The Lancet in March 2007 involved over 18,000 patients with unhealthy cholesterol levels. The patients were randomly assigned to receive either 1,800 mg a day of <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-EPA" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="E-EPA">E-EPA</a> with a statin drug or a statin drug alone. The trial lasted five years. At the end of the study, those patients in the E-EPA group had superior cardiovascular function and nonfatal coronary events were also significantly reduced. The authors concluded that EPA is a promising treatment for prevention of major coronary events, especially nonfatal coronary events.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-yokoyama2007-78" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[79]</a></div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Similar to those following a Mediterranean diet, Arctic-dwelling <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inuit" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Inuit">Inuit</a> - who consume high amounts of n−3 fatty acids from fatty fish - also tend to have higher proportions of n−3, increased HDL cholesterol and decreased <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triglyceride" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Triglyceride">triglycerides</a> (fatty material that circulates in the blood), and less heart disease. Eating <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juglans_regia" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Juglans regia">walnuts</a> (the ratio of n−6 to n−3 is circa 4:1<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-NutritionData-walnuts-79" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[80]</a>) was reported to lower total <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cholesterol" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Cholesterol">cholesterol</a> by 4% relative to controls when people also ate 27% less cholesterol.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-zamb.C3.B3n2000-80" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[81]</a></div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">A study of 465 women showed that serum levels of EPA are inversely related to levels of anti-oxidized-<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low-density_lipoprotein" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Low-density lipoprotein">LDL</a> antibodies. Oxidative modification of LDL is thought to play an important role in the development of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atherosclerosis" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Atherosclerosis">atherosclerosis</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-garrido-s.C3.A1nchez2008-81" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[82]</a></div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Survivors of past myocardial infarctions are less likely to die from an arrhythmic event if they are consuming high levels of n-3.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-82" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[83]</a> These antiarrhythmic effects are thought to be due to n-3 fatty acids' ability to increase the fibrillation threshold of the heart tissue.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-83" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[84]</a></div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">N-3 fatty acids also have mild antihypertensive effects. When subjects consumed n-3 from oily fish on a regular basis, their systolic blood pressure was lowered by about 3.5-5.5 mmHg.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-84" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[85]</a></div><h4 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">Immune function</h4><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">In a study regarding fish oil published in the Journal of Nutrition in April 2007, sixty-four healthy Danish infants from nine to twelve months of age received either cow's milk or infant formula alone or with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fish_oil" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Fish oil">fish oil</a>. Those infants supplemented with fish oil were found to have improvement in immune function maturation, with no apparent reduction in immune activation.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-damsgaard2007-85" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[86]</a>  Were these studies ever repeated for flaxseed only, or comparing flaxseed with fish oil?</div><h4 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">Neurology</h4><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Limited evidence suggests that long-chain n-3 fatty acids may delay or prevent the progression of certain psychotic disorders in high-risk children and adolescents.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-86" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[87]</a> The individuals diagnosed with schizophrenia exhibited reduced levels of bothn-6 and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, and the results of a study in which the treatment of high-risk children with a dietary supplement containing both <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eicosapentaenoic_acid" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Eicosapentaenoic acid">eicosapentaenoate</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Docosahexaenoic_acid" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Docosahexaenoic acid">docosahexaenoate</a> produced a statistically significant (95% confidence, but not 97.5% confidence) decrease in progression to schizophrenia.</div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Consumption of <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethyl_eicosapentaenoate" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Ethyl eicosapentaenoate">ethyl eicosapentaenoate</a> (E-EPA) partially countered memory impairment in a rat model of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Alzheimer's disease">Alzheimer's disease</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-87" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[88]</a> and produced a statistically insignificant decrease in human depression.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-88" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[89]</a></div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Fish oil has been shown to have no effect on cognitive performance in individuals 65 years of age or older without dementia.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-vadeRest2008-89" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[90]</a></div><h4 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">Inflammation</h4><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Although not confirmed as an approved <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_claim" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Health claim">health claim</a>, current research suggests that the anti-inflammatory activity of long-chain n−3 fatty acids may translate into clinical effects.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-90" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[91]</a> For example, there is evidence that <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rheumatoid_arthritis" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Rheumatoid arthritis">rheumatoid arthritis</a>sufferers taking long-chain n−3 fatty acids from sources such as fish have reduced pain compared to those receiving standard <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NSAID" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="NSAID">NSAIDs</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-91" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[92]</a></div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">Risks</h3><h4 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">Noncardiac health risks</h4><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">In a letter published October 31, 2000,<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-Lewis-92" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[93]</a> the United States <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a> Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, Office of Nutritional Products, Labeling, and Dietary Supplements noted that known or suspected risks of EPA and DHA consumed in excess of 3 grams per day may include the possibility of:</div><ul style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; list-style-image: url(http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/monobook/bullet.gif); list-style-type: square; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Increased incidence of bleeding</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemorrhagic_stroke" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Hemorrhagic stroke">Hemorrhagic stroke</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidation" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Oxidation">Oxidation</a> of omega-3 fatty acids, forming biologically active oxidation products</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Increased levels of low-density lipoproteins (LDL) cholesterol or apoproteins associated with LDL cholesterol among diabetics and hyperlipidemics</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Reduced glycemic control among diabetics</li></ul><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Subsequent advice from the FDA and national counterparts have permitted health claims associated with heart health.</div><h4 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">Cardiac risk</h4><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Persons with <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congestive_heart_failure" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Congestive heart failure">congestive heart failure</a>, chronic recurrent <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angina_pectoris" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Angina pectoris">angina pectoris</a>, or evidence that their heart is receiving insufficient blood flow are advised to talk to their doctors before taking n−3 fatty acids.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-ornish2006-93" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[94]</a> In a recent large study, n−3 fatty acids on top of standard heart failure therapy produced a small but statistically significant benefit in terms of mortality and hospitalization.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-pmid18757090-94" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[95]</a></div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">In congestive heart failure, cells that only barely receive enough blood flow become electrically hyperexcitable. This can lead to increased risk of irregular heartbeats, which, in turn, can cause sudden cardiac death. Certain n−3 fatty acids seem to stabilize the rhythm of the heart by effectively preventing these hyperexcitable cells from functioning, thereby reducing the likelihood of sudden cardiac death. For most people, this is beneficial and could account for most of the large reduction in the likelihood of sudden cardiac death. Nevertheless, for people with congestive heart failure, the heart is barely pumping blood well enough to keep them alive. In these patients, n−3 fatty acids may eliminate enough of these few pumping cells that the heart would no longer be able to pump sufficient blood to live, causing an increased, rather than decreased, risk of cardiac death.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-ornish2006-93" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[94]</a></div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">Research frontiers</h3><h4 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">Developmental differences</h4><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Although not supported by current scientific evidence as a primary treatment for <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ADHD" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="ADHD">ADHD</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism_spectrum_disorder" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Autism spectrum disorder">autism spectrum disorders</a>, and other developmental differences,<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-levy2005-95" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[96]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-richardson2006-96" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[97]</a> omega-3 fatty acids have gained popularity for children with these conditions.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-levy2005-95" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[96]</a> A 2004 Internet survey found that 29% of surveyed parents used <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essential_fatty_acid" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Essential fatty acid">essential fatty acid</a> supplements to treat children with autistic spectrum disorders.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-green2006-97" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[98]</a></div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Omega-3 fatty acids offer a promising complementary approach to standard treatments for ADHD and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_coordination_disorder" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Developmental coordination disorder">developmental coordination disorder</a>.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-richardson2006-96" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[97]</a> Fish oils appear to reduce ADHD-related symptoms in some children.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-richardson2006-96" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[97]</a> Double blind studies have shown "medium to strong treatment effects of omega 3 fatty acids on symptoms of ADHD" after administering amounts around 1 gram for three to six months.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-sinn2007-98" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[99]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-richardson2005-99" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[100]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-Johnson08-100" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[101]</a></div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">A 2009 survey concluded that there is not enough scientific evidence to support the effectiveness of 'n-3 fatty acids for autism spectrum disorders.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-Bent2009-101" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[102]</a> One randomized controlled trial (RCT) found that n-3 fatty acids did not significantly affect aberrant behavior in autistic children, and although the investigators noted reduced hyperactivity,<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-amminger2007-102" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[103]</a> their later reanalysis reported that the reduction was not statistically significant.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-Gilbert2008-103" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[104]</a></div><h4 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">Low birth weight</h4><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">In a study of nearly 9,000 pregnant women, researchers found that women that ate fish once a week during their first trimester had 27% less risk of low birth weight and premature birth than those that ate no fish. Low consumption of fish was a strong risk factor for preterm delivery and low birth weight,<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-olsen2002-104" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[105]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-jensen1-105" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[106]</a> but attempts by other groups to reverse this increased risk by encouraging increased prenatal consumption of fish were unsuccessful.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-odent2002-106" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[107]</a>  Were these studies ever repeated for flaxseed only, or comparing flaxseed with fish oil?</div><h4 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">Psychiatric disorders</h4><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">n−3 fatty acids are thought by some to have membrane-enhancing capabilities in brain cells.  One medical explanation is that n−3 fatty acids play a role in the fortification of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myelin" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Myelin">myelin sheaths</a>. It is no coincidence that n−3 fatty acids comprise approximately eight percent of the average human brain, according to Dr. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Horrobin" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="David Horrobin">David Horrobin</a>, a pioneer in fatty acid research. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_Holman" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Ralph Holman">Ralph Holman</a> of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Minnesota" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="University of Minnesota">University of Minnesota</a>, another major researcher studying <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essential_fatty_acid" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Essential fatty acid">essential fatty acids</a>, who gave omega-3 its name, surmised how n−3 components are analogous to the human brain by stating that "DHA is structure; EPA is function."</div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">A benefit of n−3 fatty acids is helping the brain to repair damage by promoting neuronal growth.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-trivedi2006-73" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[74]</a> In a six-month study involving people with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schizophrenia" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Schizophrenia">schizophrenia</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huntington%27s_disease" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Huntington's disease">Huntington's disease</a> who were treated with <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-EPA" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="E-EPA">E-EPA</a> or a placebo, the placebo group had clearly lost cerebral tissue, while the patients given the supplements had a significant increase of grey and white matter.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-puri2006-107" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[108]</a></div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">In the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prefrontal_cortex" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Prefrontal cortex">prefrontal cortex</a> (PFC) of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Brain">brain</a>, low brain n−3 fatty acids are thought to lower the dopaminergic <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotransmission" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Neurotransmission">neurotransmission</a>, possibly contributing to the negative and neurocognitive symptoms in schizophrenia. This reduction in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dopamine" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Dopamine">dopamine</a>system function in the PFC may lead to an overactivity in dopaminergic function in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limbic_system" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Limbic system">limbic system</a> of the brain, which is suppressively controlled by the PFC dopamine system, causing the positive symptoms of schizophrenia. This is called the n−3 polyunsaturated fatty acid/dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia (Ohara, 2007). This mechanism may explain why n−3 supplementation shows effects against both positive, negative and cognitive symptoms in schizophrenia.</div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">As a consequence, the past decade of n−3 fatty acid research has procured some <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_world" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Western world">Western</a> interest in n−3 fatty acids as being a legitimate 'brain food.' Still, recent claims that one's <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence_quotient" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Intelligence quotient">intelligence quotient</a>, psychological tests measuring certain cognitive skills, including numerical and verbal reasoning skills, are increased on account of n−3 fatty acids consumed by pregnant mothers remain unreliable and controversial. An even more significant focus of research, however, lies in the role of n−3 fatty acids as a non-prescription treatment for certain psychiatric and mental diagnoses and has become a topic of much research and speculation. A 2011 report of preliminary research on mice found that omega-3 deficiency is linked to depression and mood disorders.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-108" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[109]</a></div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">In 1998, Andrew L. Stoll, MD and his colleagues at <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_University" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a> conducted a small <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-blind" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Double-blind">double-blind</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placebo" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Placebo">placebo</a>-controlled study in thirty patients diagnosed with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolar_disorder" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Bipolar disorder">bipolar disorder</a>. Most subjects in this study were already undergoing psychopharmacological treatment (e.g., 12 out of the 30 were taking lithium). Over the course of four months, he gave 15 subjects capsules containing <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olive_oil" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Olive oil">olive oil</a>, and another 15 subjects capsules containing nine grams of pharmaceutical-quality EPA and DHA. The study showed that subjects in the n−3 group were less likely to experience a relapse of symptoms in the four months of the study. Moreover, the n−3 group experienced significantly more recovery than the placebo group. However, a commentary on the Stoll study notes that the improvement in the n−3 group was too small to be clinically significant.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-calabrese1999-109" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[110]</a> Though Stoll believes that the 1999 experiment was not as optimal as it could have been and has accordingly pursued further research, the foundation has been laid for more researchers to explore the theoretical association between absorbed n−3 fatty acids and signal transduction inhibition in the brain.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-stoll1999-110" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[111]</a></div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">"Several epidemiological studies suggest covariation between seafood consumption and rates of mood disorders. Biological marker studies indicate deficits in omega−3 fatty acids in people with depressive disorders, while several treatment studies indicate therapeutic benefits from omega-3 supplementation. A similar contribution of omega-3 fatty acids to coronary artery disease may explain the well-described links between coronary artery disease and depression. Deficits in omega-3 fatty acids have been identified as a contributing factor to mood disorders and offer a potential rational treatment approach."<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-nemets2006-111" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[112]</a> In 2004, a study found that 100 suicide attempt patients on average had significantly lower levels of EPA in their blood as compared to controls.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-huan2004-112" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[113]</a></div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">In a recent study, low levels of DHA were associated with an increased risk of suicide for members of the U.S. military.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-113" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[114]</a></div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">In 2006, the Omega-3 Fatty Acids Subcommittee, assembled by the Committee on Research on Psychiatric Treatments of the American Psychiatric Association (APA) stated the following: "The preponderance of epidemiologic and tissue compositional studies supports a protective effect of omega-3 EFA intake, particularly eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), in mood disorders. Meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials demonstrate a statistically significant benefit in unipolar and bipolar depression (p=.02). The results were highly heterogeneous, indicating that it is important to examine the characteristics of each individual study to note the differences in design and execution. There is less evidence of benefit in schizophrenia. EPA and DHA appear to have negligible risks and some potential benefit in major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder, but results remain inconclusive in most areas of interest in psychiatry. Health benefits of omega-3 EFA may be especially important in patients with psychiatric disorders, due to high prevalence rates of smoking and obesity and the metabolic side effects of some psychotropic medications." <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-114" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[115]</a><a class="external free" href="http://article.psychiatrist.com/dao_1-login.asp?ID=10007556&RSID=69755683854317" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: url(http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/monobook/external.png); background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #3366bb; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 13px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;">http://article.psychiatrist.com/dao_1-login.asp?ID=10007556&RSID=69755683854317</a></div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Another meta-analysis published in the Journal of Clinical Psychiatry in 2007, based on 10 clinical trials, found that Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids significantly improved depression in patients with both unipolar and bipolar disorder. However, based upon the heterogeneity of the trials, the authors concluded that "more large-scale, well-controlled trials are needed to find out the favorable target subjects, therapeutic dose of EPA and the composition of omega-3 PUFAs in treating depression".<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-lin2007-115" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[116]</a> A small American trial, published in 2009, concluded that <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-EPA" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="E-EPA">E-EPA</a>, as monotherapy, demonstrated a statistically insignificant advantage over placebo, thought to be due to study limitations.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-116" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[117]</a> However, a 2011 longitudinal study of over 50,000 women, conducted at Harvard University, found no association between intake of EPA and DPA and a reduction in depression, over a period of ten years. The study did, on the other hand, find that intake of <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91-Linolenic_acid" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Α-Linolenic acid">α-Linolenic acid</a> was positively associated with a significant reduction in depression in the same group.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-117" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[118]</a></div><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">Dietary sources</h3><h4 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">Daily values</h4><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">As macronutrients, fats are not assigned <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recommended_daily_allowance" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Recommended daily allowance">recommended daily allowances</a>. Macronutrients have acceptable intake (AI) levels and acceptable macronutrient distribution ranges (AMDRs) instead of RDAs. The AI for n−3 is 1.6 grams/day for men and 1.1 grams/day for women,<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-FNBp423-118" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[119]</a>[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>], while the AMDR is 0.6% to 1.2% of total energy.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-FNBp770-119" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[120]</a>[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">A growing body of literature suggests that higher intakes of α-linolenic acid (ALA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) may afford some degree of protection against <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronary_heart_disease" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Coronary heart disease">coronary heart disease</a>. Because the physiological potency of EPA and DHA is much greater than that of ALA, it is not possible to estimate one AMDR for all n−3 fatty acids. Approximately 10 percent of the AMDR can be consumed as EPA and/or DHA."<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-FNBp770-119" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[120]</a> There was insufficient evidence as of 2005 to set an upper tolerable limit for n−3 fatty acids.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-FNBp423-118" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[119]</a></div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heavy_metal_poisoning" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Heavy metal poisoning">Heavy metal poisoning</a> by the body's accumulation of traces of heavy metals, in particular <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(element)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Mercury (element)">mercury</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Lead">lead</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickel" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Nickel">nickel</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsenic" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Arsenic">arsenic</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadmium" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Cadmium">cadmium</a>, is a possible risk from consuming fish oil supplements. Also, other contaminants (<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PCBs" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="PCBs">PCBs</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Furan" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Furan">furans</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polychlorinated_dibenzodioxins" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins">dioxins</a>, and PBDEs) might be found, especially in less-refined fish oil supplements. In reality, however, heavy metal toxicity from consuming fish oil supplements is highly unlikely, because heavy metals selectively bind with protein in the fish flesh rather than accumulate in the oil. An independent test in 2006 of 44 fish oils on the US market found all of the products passed safety standards for potential contaminants.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-CL2005-120" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[121]</a> The FDA recommends that the total dietary intake of n−3 fatty acids from fish not exceed 3 grams per day, with no more than 2 grams per day from nutritional supplements.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-fda2004-6" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[7]</a></div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">A recent trend has been to fortify food with n−3 fatty acid supplements. Global food companies have launched n−3 fatty acid fortified bread, orange juice, children's pasta, popcorn, confections, and infant formula.</div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"></div><h4 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">Plant sources</h4><div class="thumb tright" style="background-color: white; clear: right; float: right; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 1.3em; margin-left: 1.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; width: auto;"><div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 12px; min-width: 100px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: center; width: 252px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flax_seeds.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="188" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Flax_seeds.jpg/250px-Flax_seeds.jpg" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="250" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; padding-bottom: 3px !important; padding-left: 3px !important; padding-right: 3px !important; padding-top: 3px !important; text-align: left;"><div class="magnify" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-image: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; float: right;"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flax_seeds.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: initial !important; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-image: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; color: #002bb8; display: block; text-decoration: none;" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-attachment: initial !important; background-clip: initial !important; background-color: white; background-image: none !important; background-origin: initial !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border-bottom-style: none !important; border-color: initial !important; border-color: initial; border-image: initial !important; border-left-style: none !important; border-right-style: none !important; border-top-style: none !important; border-width: initial !important; border-width: initial; display: block; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flax" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Flax">Flax seeds</a> produce <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linseed_oil" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Linseed oil">linseed oil</a>, which has a very high ALA content</div></div></div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">These tables are incomplete (not the n-3).</div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Table 1. <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha-linolenic_acid" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Alpha-linolenic acid">ALA</a> content as the percentage of the seed oil.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-sofadb-132" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[133]</a></div><table cellpadding="1" class="wikitable" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-collapse: collapse; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; color: black; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 1em; margin-top: 1em;"><tbody><tr><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;">Common name</th><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;">Alternative name</th><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linnaean_name" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Linnaean name">Linnaean name</a></th><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;">% ALA</th></tr><tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perilla" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Perilla">Perilla</a></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">shiso</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perilla_frutescens" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Perilla frutescens">Perilla frutescens</a></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">61</td></tr><tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">Chia seed</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">chia sage</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salvia_hispanica" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Salvia hispanica">Salvia hispanica</a></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">58</td></tr><tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flax" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Flax">Flax</a></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">linseed</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">Linum usitatissimum</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">55</td></tr><tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">Lingonberry</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">Cowberry</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccinium_vitis-idaea" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Vaccinium vitis-idaea">Vaccinium vitis-idaea</a></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">49</td></tr><tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">Camelina</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">Gold-of-pleasure</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camelina_sativa" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Camelina sativa">Camelina sativa</a></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">36</td></tr><tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">Purslane</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portulaca" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Portulaca">Portulaca</a></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">Portulaca oleracea</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">35</td></tr><tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">Black raspberry</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubus_occidentalis" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Rubus occidentalis">Rubus occidentalis</a></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">33</td></tr><tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">Hemp</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannabis_sativa" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Cannabis sativa">Cannabis sativa</a></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">19</td></tr></tbody></table><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Table 2. ALA content as the percentage of the whole food.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-uos-133" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[134]</a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-ngg-134" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[135]</a></div><table cellpadding="1" class="wikitable" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-collapse: collapse; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; color: black; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 1em; margin-top: 1em;"><tbody><tr><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;">Common name</th><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linnaean_name" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Linnaean name">Linnaean name</a></th><th style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;">% ALA</th></tr><tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">Flaxseed</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linum_usitatissimum" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Linum usitatissimum">Linum usitatissimum</a></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">18.1</td></tr><tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">Butternuts</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juglans_cinerea" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Juglans cinerea">Juglans cinerea</a></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">8.7</td></tr><tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">Hempseed</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannabis_sativa" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Cannabis sativa">Cannabis sativa</a></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">8.7</td></tr><tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">Persian walnuts</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juglans_regia" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Juglans regia">Juglans regia</a></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">6.3</td></tr><tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">Pecan nuts</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carya_illinoinensis" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Carya illinoinensis">Carya illinoinensis</a></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">0.6</td></tr><tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">Hazel nuts</td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corylus_avellana" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Corylus avellana">Corylus avellana</a></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;">0.1</td></tr></tbody></table><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flax" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Flax">Flaxseed (or linseed)</a> (Linum usitatissimum) and its oil are perhaps the most widely available <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanical" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Botanical">botanical</a> source of the n−3 fatty acid ALA. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linseed_oil" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Linseed oil">Flaxseed oil</a> consists of approximately 55% ALA, which makes it six times richer than most fish oils inn−3 fatty acids,<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-flaxcod-135" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[136]</a> although it contains negligible amounts of EPA and DHA, the n-3 fatty acids that FDA considers healthful."<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-cspinet.org-136" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[137]</a></div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portulaca_oleracea" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Portulaca oleracea">Purslane</a> contains more ALA<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_note-137" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[138]</a> than any other leafy vegetable plant. Purslane also contains .01 mg/g[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] (0.001%) of EPA, which is an extraordinary amount for a vegetable source.[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</div><h4 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">Other sources</h4><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">The <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microalgae" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Microalgae">microalgae</a> Crypthecodinium cohnii and Schizochytrium are rich sources of DHA, and can be produced commercially in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioreactor" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Bioreactor">bioreactors</a>.[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] This is the only source of DHA acceptable to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetarianism" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Vegetarianism">vegans</a>.[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">Oil from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_algae" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Brown algae">brown algae</a> (kelp) is a source of EPA.[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</div><div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acai" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Acai">Acai</a> palm fruit contains an unspecified quantity of unspecified n−3 fatty acids.[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</div><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 19px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">See also</h2><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="multicol" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; color: black; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; width: 1404px;"><tbody><tr><td align="left" style="width: 468px;" valign="top"><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: url(http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/monobook/bullet.gif); list-style-type: square; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_omega-3_fatty_acids" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="List of omega-3 fatty acids">List of n−3 fatty acids</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-6_fatty_acid" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Omega-6 fatty acid">n−6 fatty acid</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-9_fatty_acid" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Omega-9 fatty acid">n−9 fatty acid</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essential_fatty_acid" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Essential fatty acid">Essential fatty acid</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essential_fatty_acid_interactions" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Essential fatty acid interactions">Essential fatty acid interactions</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grape_seed_oil" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Grape seed oil">Grape seed oil</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbalism" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Herbalism">Herbalism</a></li></ul></td><td align="left" style="width: 468px;" valign="top"><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: url(http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/monobook/bullet.gif); list-style-type: square; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturopathic_medicine" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Naturopathic medicine">Naturopathic medicine</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camelina_sativa" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Camelina sativa">Camelina sativa</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hempseed_oil" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Hempseed oil">Hempseed oil</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cod_liver_oil" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Cod liver oil">Cod liver oil</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fish_oil" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Fish oil">Fish oil</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flax" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Flax">Flax</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Phytonutrients&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #ba0000; text-decoration: none;" title="Phytonutrients (page does not exist)">Phytonutrients</a></li></ul></td><td align="left" style="width: 468px;" valign="top"><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: url(http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/monobook/bullet.gif); list-style-type: square; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nutrition" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Nutrition">Nutrition</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linseed_oil" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Linseed oil">Linseed oil</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salvia_hispanica" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Salvia hispanica">Salvia hispanica</a> (chia)</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portulaca_oleracea" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Portulaca oleracea">Purslane</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resolvins" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Resolvins">Resolvins</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wakame" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Wakame">Wakame</a></li><li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheat_germ_oil" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Wheat germ oil">Wheat germ oil</a></li></ul></td></tr></tbody></table><div class="noprint tright portal" style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; clear: right; float: right; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0.5em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em;"><table style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f9f9f9; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-size: 11px; line-height: 12px; max-width: 175px;"><tbody><tr><td><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Foods.jpg" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="Foods.jpg" height="28" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Foods.jpg/20px-Foods.jpg" style="border-bottom-style: none; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-style: none; border-right-style: none; border-top-style: none; border-width: initial; vertical-align: middle;" width="20" /></a></td><td style="padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0px;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Food" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Portal:Food">Food portal</a></td></tr></tbody></table></div><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 19px; font-weight: normal; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Omega-3_fatty_acid&action=edit&section=34" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Notes and references">edit</a>]Notes and references</h2><div class="reflist references-column-width" style="-webkit-column-width: 30em; background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 11px; line-height: 19px; list-style-type: decimal;"><ol class="references" style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: inherit; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 3.2em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><li id="cite_note-Venturi-0" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_ref-Venturi_0-0" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;">^</a> Venturi S; Bégin ME (2010). "Thyroid Hormone, Iodine and Human Brain Evolution". In Cunnane S; Stewart K. Environmental Influences on Human Brain Evolution. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wiley_%26_Sons" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="John Wiley & Sons">John Wiley & Sons</a>. pp. <a class="external text" href="http://books.google.ca/books?id=gfkRnv20GtsC&pg=PA105#v=onepage&q&f=false" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: url(http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/monobook/external.png); background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #3366bb; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 13px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;">105–124</a>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-45268-4" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-45268-4">978-0-470-45268-4</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Thyroid+Hormone%2C+Iodine+and+Human+Brain+Evolution&rft.atitle=Environmental+Influences+on+Human+Brain+Evolution&rft.aulast=Venturi+S&rft.au=Venturi+S&rft.date=2010&rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B%5Bhttp%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.ca%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgfkRnv20GtsC%26pg%3DPA105%23v%3Donepage%26q%26f%3Dfalse+105%E2%80%93124%5D&rft.pub=%5B%5BJohn+Wiley+%26+Sons%5D%5D&rft.isbn=978-0-470-45268-4&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Omega-3_fatty_acid"></li><li id="cite_note-1" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_ref-1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;">^</a> Cocchi, M.; Venturi, S. (2000). "Iodide, antioxidant function and Omega-6 and Omega-3 fatty acids: a new hypothesis of a biochemical cooperation?".Progress in Nutrition 2: 15–19.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Iodide%2C+antioxidant+function+and+Omega-6+and+Omega-3+fatty+acids%3A+a+new+hypothesis+of+a+biochemical+cooperation%3F&rft.jtitle=Progress+in+Nutrition&rft.aulast=Cocchi&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Cocchi%2C%26%2332%3BM.&rft.au=Venturi%2C%26%2332%3BS.&rft.date=2000&rft.volume=2&rft.pages=15%E2%80%9319&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Omega-3_fatty_acid"></li><li id="cite_note-2" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_ref-2" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;">^</a> Ingenbleek, Y; Jung, L; Férard, G; Bordet, F; Goncalves, AM; Dechoux, L (1997). "Iodised rapeseed oil for eradication of severe endemic goitre". Lancet350 (9090): 1542–5. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2897%2902427-6" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: url(http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/monobook/external.png); background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #3366bb; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 13px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;">10.1016/S0140-6736(97)02427-6</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9388412" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: url(http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/monobook/external.png); background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #3366bb; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 13px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;">9388412</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Iodised+rapeseed+oil+for+eradication+of+severe+endemic+goitre&rft.jtitle=Lancet&rft.aulast=Ingenbleek&rft.aufirst=Y&rft.au=Ingenbleek%2C%26%2332%3BY&rft.au=Jung%2C%26%2332%3BL&rft.au=F%C3%A9rard%2C%26%2332%3BG&rft.au=Bordet%2C%26%2332%3BF&rft.au=Goncalves%2C%26%2332%3BAM&rft.au=Dechoux%2C%26%2332%3BL&rft.date=1997&rft.volume=350&rft.issue=9090&rft.pages=1542%E2%80%935&rft_id=info:doi/10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2897%2902427-6&rft_id=info:pmid/9388412&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Omega-3_fatty_acid"></li><li id="cite_note-3" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_ref-3" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;">^</a> Ingenbleek Y, Jung L, Férard G (2000). "Brassiodol: A new iodised oil for eradication of endemic goitre". Journal of Trace Elements in Medicine and Biology 13 (1): 85–96. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002%2F%28SICI%291520-670X%282000%2913%3A1%3C85%3A%3AAID-JTRA10%3E3.0.CO%3B2-E" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: url(http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/monobook/external.png); background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #3366bb; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 13px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;">10.1002/(SICI)1520-670X(2000)13:1<85::AID-JTRA10>3.0.CO;2-E</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Brassiodol%3A+A+new+iodised+oil+for+eradication+of+endemic+goitre&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Trace+Elements+in+Medicine+and+Biology&rft.aulast=Ingenbleek&rft.aufirst=Y&rft.au=Ingenbleek%26%2332%3BY&rft.au=Jung%26%2332%3BL&rft.au=F%C3%A9rard%26%2332%3BG&rft.date=2000&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=85%E2%80%9396&rft_id=info:doi/10.1002%2F%28SICI%291520-670X%282000%2913%3A1%3C85%3A%3AAID-JTRA10%3E3.0.CO%3B2-E&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Omega-3_fatty_acid"></li><li id="cite_note-4" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_ref-4" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;">^</a> Holman RT (February 1998). "The slow discovery of the importance of omega 3 essential fatty acids in human health". J. Nutr. 128 (2 Suppl): 427S–433S.<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9478042" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: url(http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/monobook/external.png); background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #3366bb; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 13px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;">9478042</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+slow+discovery+of+the+importance+of+omega+3+essential+fatty+acids+in+human+health&rft.jtitle=J.+Nutr.&rft.aulast=Holman+RT&rft.au=Holman+RT&rft.date=February+1998&rft.volume=128&rft.issue=2+Suppl&rft.pages=427S%E2%80%93433S&rft_id=info:pmid/9478042&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Omega-3_fatty_acid"></li><li id="cite_note-5" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_ref-5" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;">^</a> Dyerberg J, Bang HO, Hjorne N (1975). "Fatty acid composition of the plasma lipids in Greenland Eskimos". Am J Clin Nutr 28 (9): 958–66. <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1163480" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: url(http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/monobook/external.png); background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #3366bb; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 13px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;">1163480</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Fatty+acid+composition+of+the+plasma+lipids+in+Greenland+Eskimos&rft.jtitle=Am+J+Clin+Nutr&rft.aulast=Dyerberg+J%2C+Bang+HO%2C+Hjorne+N&rft.au=Dyerberg+J%2C+Bang+HO%2C+Hjorne+N&rft.date=1975&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=958%E2%80%9366&rft_id=info:pmid/1163480&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Omega-3_fatty_acid"></li><li id="cite_note-fda2004-6" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">^ <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_ref-fda2004_6-0" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;">a</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_ref-fda2004_6-1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;">b</a> <a class="external text" href="http://www.fda.gov/SiteIndex/ucm108351.htm" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: url(http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/monobook/external.png); background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #3366bb; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 13px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;">"FDA announces qualified health claims for omega-3 fatty acids"</a> (Press release). <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Food and Drug Administration">United States Food and Drug Administration</a>. September 8, 2004. Retrieved 2006-07-10.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=FDA+announces+qualified+health+claims+for+omega-3+fatty+acids&rft.atitle=&rft.date=September+8%2C+2004&rft.pub=%5B%5BFood+and+Drug+Administration%7CUnited+States+Food+and+Drug+Administration%5D%5D&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fda.gov%2FSiteIndex%2Fucm108351.htm&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Omega-3_fatty_acid"></li><li id="cite_note-7" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_ref-7" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;">^</a> Canadian Food Inspection Agency. Summary Table of Biological Role Claims Table 8-2. <a class="external free" href="http://www.inspection.gc.ca/english/fssa/labeti/guide/ch8e.shtml" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: url(http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/monobook/external.png); background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #3366bb; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 13px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;">http://www.inspection.gc.ca/english/fssa/labeti/guide/ch8e.shtml</a></li><li id="cite_note-Lands1992-8" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">^ <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_ref-Lands1992_8-0" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;">a</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_ref-Lands1992_8-1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;">b</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_ref-Lands1992_8-2" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;">c</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_ref-Lands1992_8-3" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;">d</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_ref-Lands1992_8-4" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;">e</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_ref-Lands1992_8-5" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;">f</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_E.M._Lands" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="William E.M. Lands">Lands, William E.M.</a> (1 May 1992). <a class="external text" href="http://www.fasebj.org/content/6/8/2530.full.pdf" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: url(http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/Icons-mini-file_acrobat.gif); background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #3366bb; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 18px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;">"Biochemistry and physiology ofn–3 fatty acids"</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FASEB_Journal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="FASEB Journal">FASEB Journal</a> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federation_of_American_Societies_for_Experimental_Biology" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology">Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology</a>) 6 (8): 2530–2536. <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1592205" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: url(http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/monobook/external.png); background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #3366bb; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 13px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;">1592205</a>. 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(2006). <a class="external text" href="http://www.bmj.com/cgi/eletters/332/7544/752#130637" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: url(http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/monobook/external.png); background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #3366bb; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 13px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;">"Excess Omega-6 Fats Thwart Health Benefits from Omega-3 Fats"</a>. BMJ 332 (7544): 752–760.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmj.38755.366331.2F" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: url(http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/monobook/external.png); background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #3366bb; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 13px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;">10.1136/bmj.38755.366331.2F</a>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Central" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a> <a class="external text" href="http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1420708" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: url(http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/monobook/external.png); background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #3366bb; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 13px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;">1420708</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16565093" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: url(http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/monobook/external.png); background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #3366bb; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 13px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;">16565093</a>. Retrieved 2008-03-23.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Excess+Omega-6+Fats+Thwart+Health+Benefits+from+Omega-3+Fats&rft.jtitle=BMJ&rft.aulast=Tribole&rft.aufirst=E.F.&rft.au=Tribole%2C%26%2332%3BE.F.&rft.au=Thompson%2C%26%2332%3BRL&rft.au=Harrison%2C%26%2332%3BRA&rft.au=Summerbell%2C%26%2332%3BCD&rft.au=Ness%2C%26%2332%3BAR&rft.au=Moore%2C%26%2332%3BHJ&rft.au=Worthington%2C%26%2332%3BHV&rft.au=Durrington%2C%26%2332%3BPN&rft.au=Higgins%2C%26%2332%3BJP&rft.date=2006&rft.volume=332&rft.issue=7544&rft.pages=752%E2%80%93760&rft_id=info:doi/10.1136%2Fbmj.38755.366331.2F&rft_id=info:pmc/1420708&rft_id=info:pmid/16565093&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bmj.com%2Fcgi%2Feletters%2F332%2F7544%2F752%23130637&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Omega-3_fatty_acid"></li><li id="cite_note-Duckett_Animal_Finishing-22" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">^ <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_ref-Duckett_Animal_Finishing_22-0" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;">a</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_ref-Duckett_Animal_Finishing_22-1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;">b</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_ref-Duckett_Animal_Finishing_22-2" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;">c</a> S.K. Duckett et al, Journal of Animal Science, (published online) June 2009, “Effects of winter stocker growth rate and finishing system on: III. Tissue proximate, fatty acid, vitamin and cholesterol content.”</li><li id="cite_note-tribole2007-23" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_ref-tribole2007_23-0" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;">^</a> Tribole, 2007</li><li id="cite_note-lands2005-24" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_ref-lands2005_24-0" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;">^</a> Lands, 2005</li><li id="cite_note-simopoulos2003-25" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_ref-simopoulos2003_25-0" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;">^</a> Simopoulos, AP (September 2003). "Importance of the ratio of omega-6/omega-3 essential fatty acids: evolutionary aspects". World Review of Nutrition and Dietetics 92: 1–174. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1159%2F000073788" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: url(http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/monobook/external.png); background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #3366bb; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 13px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;">10.1159/000073788</a>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-8055-7640-4" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Special:BookSources/3-8055-7640-4">3-8055-7640-4</a>.<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14579680" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: url(http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/monobook/external.png); background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #3366bb; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 13px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;">14579680</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Importance+of+the+ratio+of+omega-6%2Fomega-3+essential+fatty+acids%3A+evolutionary+aspects&rft.jtitle=World+Review+of+Nutrition+and+Dietetics&rft.aulast=Simopoulos&rft.aufirst=AP&rft.au=Simopoulos%2C%26%2332%3BAP&rft.date=September+2003&rft.volume=92&rft.pages=1%E2%80%93174&rft_id=info:doi/10.1159%2F000073788&rft.isbn=3-8055-7640-4&rft_id=info:pmid/14579680&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Omega-3_fatty_acid"></li><li id="cite_note-simopoulos2000-26" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_ref-simopoulos2000_26-0" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;">^</a> Simopoulos AP, Leaf A, Salem Jr N (2000). "Workshop Statement on the essentiality of and recommended dietary intakes for n−6 and n−3 fatty acids".Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 63 (3): 119–121.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1054%2Fplef.2000.0176" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: url(http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/monobook/external.png); background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #3366bb; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 13px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;">10.1054/plef.2000.0176</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10991764" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: url(http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/monobook/external.png); background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #3366bb; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 13px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;">10991764</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Workshop+Statement+on+the+essentiality+of+and+recommended+dietary+intakes+for+%27%27n%27%27%E2%88%926+and+%27%27n%27%27%E2%88%923+fatty+acids&rft.jtitle=Prostaglandins+Leukot+Essent+Fatty+Acids&rft.aulast=Simopoulos+AP%2C+Leaf+A%2C+Salem+Jr+N&rft.au=Simopoulos+AP%2C+Leaf+A%2C+Salem+Jr+N&rft.date=2000&rft.volume=63&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=119%E2%80%93121&rft_id=info:doi/10.1054%2Fplef.2000.0176&rft_id=info:pmid/10991764&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Omega-3_fatty_acid"></li><li id="cite_note-27" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_ref-27" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;">^</a> Hibbeln et al., 2006</li><li id="cite_note-28" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_ref-28" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;">^</a> Erasmus, Udo, Fats and Oils. 1986. Alive books, Vancouver, <a class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0920470165" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;">ISBN 0-920470-16-5</a> p. 263 (round-number ratio within ranges given.)</li><li id="cite_note-NIHefaeducationpage-29" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_ref-NIHefaeducationpage_29-0" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;">^</a> <a class="external text" href="http://efaeducation.nih.gov/sig/esstable.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: url(http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/monobook/external.png); background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #3366bb; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 13px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;">"Essential Fats in Food Oils, NIH page"</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Essential+Fats+in+Food+Oils%2C+NIH+page&rft.atitle=&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fefaeducation.nih.gov%2Fsig%2Fesstable.html&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Omega-3_fatty_acid"></li><li id="cite_note-harvard-30" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_ref-harvard_30-0" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;">^</a> <a class="external text" href="http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/questions/omega-3/index.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: url(http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/monobook/external.png); background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #3366bb; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 13px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;">"Ask the Expert: Omega-3 Fatty Acids"</a>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_University" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a>. 21 April 2009. Retrieved 6 April 2011. ""Omega-6 fatty acids lower LDL cholesterol (the "bad" cholesterol) and reduce inflammation, and they are protective against heart disease. So both omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids are healthy. While there is a theory that omega-3 fatty acids are better for our health than omega-6 fatty acids, this is not supported by the latest evidence. Thus, the omega-3 to omega-6 ratio is basically the "good divided by the good," so it is of no value in evaluating diet quality or predicting disease.""<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Ask+the+Expert%3A+Omega-3+Fatty+Acids&rft.jtitle=%5B%5BHarvard+University%5D%5D&rft.date=21+April+2009&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hsph.harvard.edu%2Fnutritionsource%2Fquestions%2Fomega-3%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Omega-3_fatty_acid"></li><li id="cite_note-vonSchacky2003-31" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_ref-vonSchacky2003_31-0" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;">^</a> von Schacky C. (March 2003). "The role of omega-3 fatty acids in cardiovascular disease.". Curr. Atheroscler. Rep. 5 (2): 139–45.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11883-003-0086-y" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: url(http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/monobook/external.png); background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #3366bb; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 13px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;">10.1007/s11883-003-0086-y</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12573200" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: url(http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/monobook/external.png); background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #3366bb; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 13px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;">12573200</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+role+of+omega-3+fatty+acids+in+cardiovascular+disease.&rft.jtitle=Curr.+Atheroscler.+Rep.&rft.aulast=von+Schacky+C.&rft.au=von+Schacky+C.&rft.date=March+2003&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=139%E2%80%9345&rft_id=info:doi/10.1007%2Fs11883-003-0086-y&rft_id=info:pmid/12573200&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Omega-3_fatty_acid"></li><li id="cite_note-32" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_ref-32" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;">^</a> name="EPA" <a class="external autonumber" href="http://www.epa.gov/hg/advisories.htm" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: url(http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/monobook/external.png); background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #3366bb; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 13px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;">[2]</a>,</li><li id="cite_note-Morris1993-33" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_ref-Morris1993_33-0" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;">^</a> Morris, Martha C.; Sacks, Frank; Rosner, Bernard (1993). <a class="external text" href="http://circ.ahajournals.org/cgi/reprint/88/2/523/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: url(http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/monobook/external.png); background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #3366bb; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 13px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;">"Does fish oil lower blood pressure? 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(1993). <a class="external text" href="http://hyper.ahajournals.org/cgi/reprint/34/2/253/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: url(http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/monobook/external.png); background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #3366bb; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 13px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;">"Docosahexaenoic acid but not eicosapentaenoic acid lowers ambulatory blood pressure and heart rate in humans"</a>. Hypertension34 (2): 253–260. <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10454450" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: url(http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/monobook/external.png); background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #3366bb; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 13px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;">10454450</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Docosahexaenoic+acid+but+not+eicosapentaenoic+acid+lowers+ambulatory+blood+pressure+and+heart+rate+in+humans&rft.jtitle=Hypertension&rft.aulast=Mori%2C+Trevor+A.&rft.au=Mori%2C+Trevor+A.&rft.date=1993&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=253%E2%80%93260&rft_id=info:pmid/10454450&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhyper.ahajournals.org%2Fcgi%2Freprint%2F34%2F2%2F253%2F&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Omega-3_fatty_acid"></li><li id="cite_note-Harris1997-35" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_ref-Harris1997_35-0" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;">^</a> Harris, William S. (1997). <a class="external text" href="http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/reprint/65/5/1645S/" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: url(http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/monobook/external.png); background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #3366bb; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 13px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;">"n−3 fatty acids and serum lipoproteins: human studies"</a>. Am J Clin Nutr 65 (5 Sup.): 1645S–1654S. <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9129504" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: url(http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/monobook/external.png); background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #3366bb; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 13px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;">9129504</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=%27%27n%27%27%E2%88%923+fatty+acids+and+serum+lipoproteins%3A+human+studies&rft.jtitle=Am+J+Clin+Nutr&rft.aulast=Harris%2C+William+S.&rft.au=Harris%2C+William+S.&rft.date=1997&rft.volume=65&rft.issue=5+Sup.&rft.pages=1645S%E2%80%931654S&rft_id=info:pmid/9129504&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ajcn.org%2Fcgi%2Freprint%2F65%2F5%2F1645S%2F&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Omega-3_fatty_acid"></li><li id="cite_note-Sanders1997-36" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_ref-Sanders1997_36-0" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;">^</a> Sanders, T.A.B.; Oakley, F.R.; Miller, G.J.; Mitropoulos, K.A.; Crook, D.; Oliver, M.F. (1997). <a class="external text" href="http://atvb.ahajournals.org/cgi/content/full/17/12/3449" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: url(http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/monobook/external.png); background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #3366bb; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 13px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;">"Influence of n−6 versus n−3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in diets low in saturated fatty acids on plasma lipoproteins and hemostatic factors"</a>.Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology 17 (12): 3449–3460.<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9437192" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: url(http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/monobook/external.png); background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #3366bb; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 13px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;">9437192</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Influence+of+%27%27n%27%27%E2%88%926+versus+%27%27n%27%27%E2%88%923+polyunsaturated+fatty+acids+in+diets+low+in+saturated+fatty+acids+on+plasma+lipoproteins+and+hemostatic+factors&rft.jtitle=Arteriosclerosis%2C+Thrombosis%2C+and+Vascular+Biology&rft.aulast=Sanders%2C+T.A.B.&rft.au=Sanders%2C+T.A.B.&rft.date=1997&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=3449%E2%80%933460&rft_id=info:pmid/9437192&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fatvb.ahajournals.org%2Fcgi%2Fcontent%2Ffull%2F17%2F12%2F3449&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Omega-3_fatty_acid"></li><li id="cite_note-Roche1996-37" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_ref-Roche1996_37-0" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;">^</a> Roche, H.M.; Gibney, M.J. (1996). <a class="external text" href="http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=3232572" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: url(http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/monobook/external.png); background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #3366bb; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 13px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;">"Postprandial triacylglycerolaemia: the effect of low-fat dietary treatment with and without fish oil supplementation"</a>. Eur J Clin Nutr. 50 (9): 617–624. <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8880041" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: url(http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/monobook/external.png); background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #3366bb; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 13px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;">8880041</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Postprandial+triacylglycerolaemia%3A+the+effect+of+low-fat+dietary+treatment+with+and+without+fish+oil+supplementation&rft.jtitle=Eur+J+Clin+Nutr.&rft.aulast=Roche%2C+H.M.&rft.au=Roche%2C+H.M.&rft.date=1996&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=617%E2%80%93624&rft_id=info:pmid/8880041&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcat.inist.fr%2F%3FaModele%3DafficheN%26cpsidt%3D3232572&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Omega-3_fatty_acid"></li><li id="cite_note-Davidson2007-38" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_ref-Davidson2007_38-0" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;">^</a> Davidson MH, Stein EA, Bays HE, Maki KC, Doyle RT, Shalwitz RA, Ballantyne CM, Ginsberg HN (2007). 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"Addition of omega-3 fatty acid to maintenance medication treatment for recurrent unipolar depressive disorder". Am J Psychiatry 159 (3): 477–479. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1176%2Fappi.ajp.159.3.477" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: url(http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/monobook/external.png); background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #3366bb; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 13px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;">10.1176/appi.ajp.159.3.477</a>.<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11870016" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: url(http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/monobook/external.png); background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #3366bb; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 13px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;">11870016</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Addition+of+omega-3+fatty+acid+to+maintenance+medication+treatment+for+recurrent+unipolar+depressive+disorder&rft.jtitle=Am+J+Psychiatry&rft.aulast=Nemets&rft.aufirst=Boris&rft.au=Nemets%2C%26%2332%3BBoris&rft.date=2002&rft.volume=159&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=477%E2%80%93479&rft_id=info:doi/10.1176%2Fappi.ajp.159.3.477&rft_id=info:pmid/11870016&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Omega-3_fatty_acid"></li><li id="cite_note-52" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_ref-52" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;">^</a> Green, Pnina; Hermesh, Haggai; Monselisec, Assaf; Maromb, Sofi; Presburgerb, Gadi; Weizman, Abraham (2006). "Red cell membrane omega-3 fatty acids are decreased in nondepressed patients with social anxiety disorder". Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 16 (2): 107–113.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.euroneuro.2005.07.005" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: url(http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/monobook/external.png); background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #3366bb; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 13px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;">10.1016/j.euroneuro.2005.07.005</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16243493" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: url(http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/monobook/external.png); background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #3366bb; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 13px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;">16243493</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Red+cell+membrane+omega-3+fatty+acids+are+decreased+in+nondepressed+patients+with+social+anxiety+disorder&rft.jtitle=Eur+Neuropsychopharmacol&rft.aulast=Green&rft.aufirst=Pnina&rft.au=Green%2C%26%2332%3BPnina&rft.date=2006&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=107%E2%80%93113&rft_id=info:doi/10.1016%2Fj.euroneuro.2005.07.005&rft_id=info:pmid/16243493&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Omega-3_fatty_acid"></li><li id="cite_note-53" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_ref-53" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;">^</a> Yehuda S., Rabinovitz S., Mostofsky D.I. (2005). "Mixture of essential fatty acids lowers test anxiety". Nutritional Neuroscience 8 (4): 265–267.<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080%2F10284150500445795" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: url(http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/monobook/external.png); background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #3366bb; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 13px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;">10.1080/10284150500445795</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16491653" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: url(http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/monobook/external.png); background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #3366bb; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 13px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;">16491653</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Mixture+of+essential+fatty+acids+lowers+test+anxiety&rft.jtitle=Nutritional+Neuroscience&rft.aulast=Yehuda+S.%2C+Rabinovitz+S.%2C+Mostofsky+D.I.&rft.au=Yehuda+S.%2C+Rabinovitz+S.%2C+Mostofsky+D.I.&rft.date=2005&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=265%E2%80%93267&rft_id=info:doi/10.1080%2F10284150500445795&rft_id=info:pmid/16491653&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Omega-3_fatty_acid"></li><li id="cite_note-54" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_ref-54" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;">^</a> Caryn Rabin, Roni (October 26, 2009). <a class="external text" href="http://www.nytimes.com/2009/10/27/health/research/27regimens.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: url(http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/monobook/external.png); background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #3366bb; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 13px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;">"Regimens: Omega-3 Fats Fail to Lift Depression in Heart Patients"</a>. The New York Times.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Regimens%3A+Omega-3+Fats+Fail+to+Lift+Depression+in+Heart+Patients&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.aulast=Caryn+Rabin%2C+Roni&rft.au=Caryn+Rabin%2C+Roni&rft.date=October+26%2C+2009&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2009%2F10%2F27%2Fhealth%2Fresearch%2F27regimens.html&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Omega-3_fatty_acid"></li><li id="cite_note-55" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid#cite_ref-55" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;">^</a> Carney, Robert; Freedland, Kenneth; Rubin, Eugene; Rich, Michael; Steinmeyer, Brian; Harris, William (2009). 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(1996). 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Manson">Manson, J.E.</a>; Colditz, G.A.; Speizer, F.E.; Hennekens, C.H.; <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Willett" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="Walter Willett">Willett, W.C.</a> (2001). 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background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: url(http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/monobook/external.png); background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #3366bb; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 13px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;">10.1172/JCI31494</a>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Central" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a> <a class="external text" href="http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1890998" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: url(http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/monobook/external.png); background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #3366bb; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 13px; padding-top: 0px; text-decoration: none;">1890998</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #002bb8; text-decoration: none;" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17607361" rel="nofollow" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: url(http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/monobook/external.png); background-origin: initial; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #3366bb; padding-bottom: 0px; 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